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• • • Translation is the communication of the of a text by means of an text. The English language draws a distinction (not all languages do) between translating (a written text) and (oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages); under this distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of within a language community. Blank virobnicha harakteristika dlya nadannya na lkk ta msek.

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A translator always risks inadvertently introducing source-language,, or into the target-language rendering. On the other hand, such 'spill-overs' have sometimes imported useful source-language and that have enriched target languages. Translators, including early translators of, have helped shape the very languages into which they have translated. Because of the laboriousness of the translation process, since the 1940s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to or to.

More recently, the rise of the has fostered a for and has facilitated '. A for the art of translation. The word 'translation' derives from the word translatio, which comes from, 'across' +, 'to carry' or 'to bring' ( -latio in turn coming from latus, the of ferre). Thus translatio is 'a carrying across' or 'a bringing across': in this case, of a text from one language to another. The and some have their words for the of 'translation' on translatio. The and the remaining Slavic languages have derived their words for the concept of 'translation' from an alternative Latin word, traductio, itself derived from traducere ('to lead across' or 'to bring across', from trans, 'across' +, 'to lead' or 'to bring'). The term for 'translation', μετάφρασις ( metaphrasis, 'a speaking across'), has supplied with ' (a ', or 'word-for-word', translation)—as contrasted with ' ('a saying in other words', from παράφρασις, paraphrasis).

'Metaphrase' corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to '; and 'paraphrase', to '. Strictly speaking, the concept of metaphrase—of 'word-for-word translation'—is an concept, because a given word in a given language often carries more than one meaning; and because a similar given meaning may often be represented in a given language by more than one word. Nevertheless, 'metaphrase' and 'paraphrase' may be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation. Theories [ ] Western theory [ ]. Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into and show remarkable continuities.

The distinguished between (). This distinction was adopted by English and (1631–1700), who described translation as the judicious blending of these two modes of phrasing when selecting, in the target language, 'counterparts,' or, for the expressions used in the source language: When [words] appear. Literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed. What is beautiful in one [language] is often barbarous, nay sometimes nonsense, in another, it would be unreasonable to limit a translator to the narrow compass of his author's words: 'tis enough if he choose out some expression which does not vitiate the sense. Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of 'imitation', i.e., of adapted translation: 'When a painter copies from the life. He has no privilege to alter features and lineaments.' This general formulation of the central concept of translation——is as adequate as any that has been proposed since and, who, in 1st-century-BCE, famously and literally cautioned against translating 'word for word' ( verbum pro verbo).